PFAS: Persistent Chemicals in Food, Drinking Water, and the Environment

Per‑ and polyfluoroalkyl substances, commonly referred to as PFAS, are a large group of industrial chemicals that have been manufactured and used for decades because of their unique properties—such as resistance to heat, water, and oil. These characteristics have made PFAS highly valuable in a wide range of industrial processes, technical applications, and consumer products, including food packaging, textiles, firefighting foams, and non‑stick coatings.

However, the same properties that make PFAS so useful also make them extremely persistent in the environment. They degrade very slowly, if at all, which has earned them the nickname “forever chemicals.” As a result, PFAS are now ubiquitous—in water, soil, foods, the broader food chain, and even in the human body.

Most Studied PFAS and Their Presence in the Human Body

Among the many compounds in the PFAS family, two have been the most extensively researched: perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS). Both have been widely detected in the environment and in human biological samples. Scientific studies have shown that these substances accumulate in the body and have very long biological half‑lives.

Because of their persistence and slow elimination, exposure to PFAS primarily occurs through contaminated food and drinking water, though other pathways—such as contact with PFAS‑containing consumer products—also contribute to overall exposure.

Risk Assessment by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)

In September 2020, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) published a comprehensive re‑evaluation of the health risks associated with PFAS in food. This assessment was a significant development because, for the first time, it included not only PFOA and PFOS but also two additional PFAS: perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) and perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS).

EFSA’s analysis found that certain PFAS can affect the immune system, including reducing the effectiveness of vaccinations. Based on the available evidence, EFSA established a tolerable weekly intake (TWI) of 4.4 nanograms per kilogram of body weight per week, applicable to the combined total of these four PFAS (PFOA, PFNA, PFHxS, and PFOS). This very low threshold underscores the significant public health concern associated with these contaminants.

Regulatory Framework and Restrictions in the European Union

Driven by increasing scientific knowledge, European regulation of PFAS has advanced gradually over the years. The use of PFOS has been largely banned since 2006, and the use of PFOA was officially restricted in the EU as of July 2020, with only limited exceptions.

On 7 February 2023, the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) published a proposal to restrict the manufacture, use, and marketing of the entire PFAS family, including imports. This initiative is one of the most ambitious chemical regulatory efforts in the EU and has broad implications for many industrial sectors.

New Limits for PFAS in Drinking Water (EU Drinking Water Directive)

In addition to food, drinking water is a major route of human exposure to PFAS. To address this, the recast EU Drinking Water Directive (Directive (EU) 2020/2184) introduced mandatory limits and monitoring requirements for PFAS in drinking water, which came into effect on 12 January 2026. Under this directive:

• “PFAS Total”—a parameter covering all PFAS—is limited to 0.50 micrograms per litre (µg/L).

• The “Sum of PFAS”—covering 20 specific PFAS substances—is limited to 0.10 µg/L.

Member States must monitor PFAS levels in a harmonised way and report exceedances to the European Commission, and they are required to take action (such as additional treatment or restrictions) if limits are breached.

These measures are the first systematic EU‑wide drinking water limits for PFAS and reflect the growing regulatory focus on reducing human exposure through safe, high‑quality water supplies.

Implications for Chemical Waste Management

The persistence and mobility of PFAS also present major challenges in chemical waste management. PFAS‑containing wastes require specific strategies for control, treatment, and disposal to avoid further environmental contamination. This includes rigorous analytical monitoring, careful control of raw materials, and risk assessment across the entire value chain.

As regulatory pressure increases and public awareness grows, companies must adopt preventive, science‑based approaches to minimize PFAS release and protect both human health and the environment.